Thesis (Master’s in Early Childhood Development Program)

Permanent URI for this collectionhttps://hdl.handle.net/10361/113

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Open Access
Teachers’ perceptions of their readiness for inclusive early childhood education in government primary schools of Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2026-08-17) Islam, Md. Shariful; Khanom, Ferdousi; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores the readiness and pedagogical practices of Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers regarding inclusive education in Kulaura, Moulvibazar. While national policy promotes inclusion, a significant gap remains between intent and classroom reality in these resource-constrained settings. Data were collected through in-depth interviews with six teachers and three classroom observations, using purposive sampling to capture diverse professional experiences. Findings reveal a dichotomy between conceptual understanding and technical competency. While teachers demonstrated strong emotional commitment, they expressed technical hesitation due to a lack of specialized training. To bridge this gap, teachers utilized relational strategies like the Friendship Method (peer-led inclusion) and Pedagogical Patience as proxies for formal resources. However, high student-teacher ratios often led to structural detachment, forcing a return to rote learning. The study concludes that individual willingness cannot succeed without systemic support. Key recommendations include practical, disability-specific professional development, the appointment of assistant teachers to manage large classes, and context-specific resources for remote schools to ensure effective inclusive practice.
Open Access
Perceptions of low-income working parents on childcare in Dhaka City
(BRAC University, 2026-08-17) Yousha, Nasrat Ahmed; Zafar, Areefa; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores the perceptions of low-income working parents regarding childcare services for children under the age of five in Dhaka City. Despite the rising number of women in the workforce, many low-income families remain excluded from essential, affordable and reliable childcare services, often forcing mothers to leave their jobs or rely on unsafe, informal care arrangements. Through an examination of parental understanding, influencing factors and existing challenges, the study identifies a significant gap between the high demand for childcare and the limited availability of such services in urban slum communities. Findings suggest that while parents increasingly recognize the importance of childcare services, their choices are heavily constrained by service costs, lack of availability, and concerns regarding child safety and caregiver trust. The study emphasizes the urgent need for community-oriented, affordable childcare models for low-income working parents in Dhaka city. These insights contribute to the design of context-specific interventions and inform policy advocacy for early childhood development goals.
Open Access
Teachers’ perceptions of school readiness of preschoolers in urban Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2026-08-17) Sinha, Chumki; Khan, Farasha; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
The study explores how preschool teachers in urban Dhaka, Bangladesh understand children’s readiness for school among children aged 3 to 5 years. It focuses on teachers’ views about children’s preparation for primary school. Data were collected through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews. This research looks at children’s developmental skills and the factors that influence their transition to formal schooling. Teachers describe school readiness as a mix of several abilities. These include basic thinking skills, early language development, emotional control and social interaction. Many teachers believe that all these areas are important for a smooth transition to primary school. However, differences were found between private and NGO run centers. These differences are related to available resources and teaching methods. Teachers also identify several factors that affect readiness for formal schooling. They consist of classroom settings, teacher preparation, parental involvement, and school expectations. Support from families is seen as especially important. A positive learning environment also plays a major role. The study identifies insight into how early learning preparedness is understood in urban Bangladesh. It suggests the need for better teacher training, improved policies and stronger cooperation between schools and families.
Open Access
Teachers’ perceptions of technology integration in early childhood classrooms in Dhaka City
(BRAC University, 2026-08-16) Mamataz, Tahmina; Imran, Mostak Ahamed; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Technology has increasingly become an important component of early childhood education, influencing teaching strategies, learning environments, and children’s engagement in classrooms. In urban educational settings such as Dhaka city, the integration of digital tools in early childhood classrooms is gradually expanding. However, teachers’ perceptions and experiences play a critical role in determining how effectively technology is integrated into teaching and learning practices. This study explores early childhood teachers’ perceptions of technology integration in classrooms within selected schools in Dhaka city. The research focuses on understanding how teachers use digital tools in their teaching practices, the benefits they observe in children’s learning, and the challenges they encounter while integrating technology with play-based learning approaches. Using a qualitative research design, data were collected through in-depth interviews and a focus group discussion with twelve early childhood teachers working in two urban schools located in Dhaka. The study examines teachers’ experiences with digital resources such as multimedia presentations, educational applications, and interactive learning tools in early childhood classrooms. The findings indicate that teachers generally view technology as a supportive tool for enhancing children’s engagement, supporting language and cognitive development, and enriching classroom activities through visual and interactive learning experiences. However, the study also identifies several challenges, including limited training, concerns about screen time, and the need to balance technology use with play-based learning approaches. The study highlights the importance of professional development opportunities and institutional support to help teachers integrate technology in appropriate ways. By exploring teachers’ perspectives, this research contributes to a better understanding of how technology can be effectively incorporated into early childhood education in Bangladesh. The findings may inform policymakers, school leaders, and teacher training institutions in developing strategies that promote meaningful and balanced use of digital tools in early childhood classrooms.
Open Access
Understanding working mothers’ perspectives on parenting and early childhood development in semi-urban areas
(BRAC University, 2026-08-17) Madhobe, Sayada Afrin; Khan, Mohammad Safayet; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores the perspectives of working mothers regarding parenting and early childhood development (ECD) in semi-urban areas of Bangladesh. With increasing female participation in the workforce, mothers face the dual responsibility of employment and caregiving during their children’s critical developmental years. Using a phenomenological approach, data were collected through six in-depth interviews and two focus group discussions conducted in Gazipur and Madaripur. The findings reveal that mothers perceive themselves as the primary caregivers and first teachers of their children. Although participants demonstrated general awareness of holistic child development, they experienced significant challenges, including time constraints, emotional guilt and limited workplace support. Grandparents emerged as the primary childcare providers, while access to formal daycare services remained limited and costly. Despite challenges, employment contributed positively to mothers’ financial independence, confidence and decision-making power. The study highlights the need for family-friendly workplace policies and community-based childcare services in semi-urban Bangladesh. The findings contribute to strengthening ECD practices, genderresponsive policies and support systems for working mothers.
Open Access
A parental perspective on the impact of screen exposure on speech development in early childhood
(BRAC University, 2026-08-17) Shupti, Naziat Islam; Khan, Mohammad Safayet; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores parental perspectives on how screen exposure affects speech development in children aged 1 to 5 years in Uttara, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Through 2 focus group discussions and 8 personal interviews conducted online with parents the research investigates whose children attend preschool at home or have recently started English medium schooling, parental observations, concerns, and management strategies regarding children's screen use. The research finding shows that children in the study spent between 2 to 5 hours daily on screens, substantially exceeding WHO and AAP recommended guidelines. Parents identified limited vocabulary, difficulty forming sentences, and the "screen talk" phenomenon (reciting content without functional communication) as primary concerns. The study moreover identifies four thematic patterns: displacement of verbal interaction by passive screen engagement, the "digital babysitter" phenomenon, educational content as a double-edged sword, and cultural/familial influences on screen use. Contributing factors included urban living constraints, parental work schedules, and limited awareness of developmental guidelines. The research highlights a significant gap between parental awareness of screen time risks and their ability to implement effective restrictions, particularly in joint family contexts. These findings underscore the need for culturally tailored interventions addressing the unique challenges faced by Bangladeshi families.
Open Access
Media representations and journalistic practices in framing early childhood mental health in Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2025-12) Shameem, Nashia Farzana; Yesmin, Sakila; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This study examined the representation of early childhood mental health in Bangladeshi media and the journalistic methods that influenced these depictions. The mental health of early childhood, the emotional and social well-being of children aged 2 to 8 is essential for lifelong development (Shonkoff et al., 2012). A qualitative design analyzed thirty-six articles in Bangla and English published between April and October 2025, alongside seven in-depth interviews with journalists, parents, and mental health specialists. Qualitative content analysis framework facilitated categorization, interpretation, and triangulation. Media coverage was found to be primarily episodic and sensationalized, focusing on negative aspects such as abuse and trauma while neglecting preventive and developmental viewpoints. Ethical breaches included the identification of young victims, the use of distressing imagery, and the omission of expert opinions. Journalists reported facing editorial pressure, a lack of trauma-informed training, and institutional constraints as hindrances to ethical reporting. Similarly, parents and professionals expressed concerns regarding coverage, describing it as stigmatizing, inadequate, and misleading. Ultimately, the study highlights a notable gap in Bangladeshi media's approach to young children's mental health, which often dismisses rights-based and developmental insights. It suggests enhancing ethical and trauma-informed journalism and developmentally appropriate coverage of ECMH.
Open Access
Caring for the career: understanding the emotional and self care experience of parents raising children with special needs
(BRAC University, 2025-12) Tuly, Shahanara; Imran, Mostak Ahamed; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Parents raising special needs children often face complex emotional, psychological, and physical challenges that can deeply affect their well-being. This study explores the emotional experiences and self-care practices of these parents, emphasizing how care giving responsibilities intersect with personal identity and resilience. Using qualitative methods approach, the research highlights patterns of emotional fatigue, guilt, and social isolation, alongside emerging strengths such as adaptability, empathy, and advocacy. Findings suggest that while many parents struggle to prioritize self-care due to overwhelming demands, supportive networks and targeted interventions can significantly improve emotional health and quality of life. The study calls for healthcare professionals, educators, and policymakers to adopt a holistic framework that recognizes caregivers’ needs as integral to family-centered care. Understanding the emotional landscape and self-care strategies of parents raising children with special needs not only informs best practices in support programs but also promotes sustainable care giving and family well-being.
Open Access
Exploring early english exposure and oral language development of 3 to 5 years old children
(BRAC University, 2025-12) Tahmina, Kazi; Islam, Syeda Fareha Shaheeda; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study examines the impact of early English exposure through home interactions and print and digital media consumption on the oral English development of Bangladeshi children aged 3–5 years. In Bangladesh, disparities in home literacy environments and access to English-language media contribute to notable differences in children’s oral English proficiency. The study aimed to identify the sources, patterns, and quality of English exposure experienced by preschool-aged children in Dhaka and to examine how these factors affect their vocabulary, pronunciation, and conversational fluency. Using a qualitative multiple-case study approach, data were collected through in-depth interviews with parents, home observations, and informal conversations with children from five families in Dhaka. The analysis was guided by Lenneberg’s Critical Period Hypothesis, Krashen’s Input Hypothesis, and Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory. Findings reveal that interactive and scaffolded home practices are strongly associated with higher levels of oral English proficiency, while low quality input, such as passive, unmediated media exposure, yields limited oral development outcomes. The study offers practical insights for parents, educators, and policymakers seeking to foster equitable, developmentally appropriate early English-learning environments in Bangladesh.
Open Access
Perceptions of daycare providers about climate-sensitive care for children’s physical well-being
(BRAC University, 2025-12) Tanya, Rabia Basri; Khanom, Ferdousi; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores how daycare providers in Dhaka, Bangladesh, perceive and practice climate-sensitive care in relation to children's physical well-being. Recognizing the increasing vulnerability of young children to climate-induced health risks, the study aims to understand how caregivers adapt their daily practices in response to climate-induced environmental stressors, such as extreme heat, air pollution, and the risk of vector-borne diseases. Data were collected through six in depth interviews (IDIs) and three observational sessions conducted in selected private daycare centers. Thematic analysis revealed that while most providers were unfamiliar with the formal concept of “climate-sensitive care,” they intuitively implemented a range of adaptive strategies, including hydration management, ventilation control, mosquito prevention, and activity adjustments during high temperatures. These practices were driven largely by experience rather than formal knowledge, training, or policy guidance. The findings highlight a gap between informal caregiving responses and systemic institutional support. This study underscores the urgent need to integrate structured capacity building training, infrastructure standards, and policy frameworks into Bangladesh’s childcare sector to enhance resilience and ensure equitable child physical well-being in a changing climate.
Open Access
Parental perceptions on climate change & associated environmental hazards and its influence on outdoor play opportunities for children aged 3-5 years in urban Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2025-12) Sultana, Fauzia; Khan, Mohammad Safayet; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Rapid urbanization and environmental changes in Bangladesh, particularly in urban areas like Dhaka and Chittagong, have significantly reduced children’s access to outdoor play spaces. This situation has affected children’s physical activity, social interaction, and overall well-being. The present study explores parents’ perspectives on climate change and its influence or consequences on outdoor play opportunities for children aged 3-5 years in urban areas of Bangladesh. Using a qualitative research design, data were collected through in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus group discussions (FGDs) with parents from different socio-economic groups in various urban locations. The findings reveal that parents recognize outdoor play as essential for children’s physical, cognitive, and emotional development; however, environmental degradation, rising temperatures, and urban pollution have limited children’s safe access to outdoor spaces. Parents also expressed growing concern about the importance of outdoor intervention ensuring safety and reduced physical activity among their children. The study highlights the urgent need for community-based initiatives, green urban planning, and parental awareness programs to ensure children’s right to safe and healthy outdoor play.
Open Access
Prejudices towards children with intellectual disabilities (IDs) at inclusive pre-school and its consequences on children’s social-emotional development: a study on parents’ perception in Dhaka
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Tonu, Tahmina Tanmoy; Ahmed, Nashida; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Prejudice, in other words, the opinion formed based on personal convictions and preconceptions without real knowledge of the facts and people involved, strongly influences a misleading evaluation and may hinder the inclusion of children in schools, regardless of specific limitations. Inclusion is based on the social justice concept; however, the inclusion of children with IDs in schools depends on others’ attitudes toward them. By interviewing nine parents of pre-school children with mild and moderate levels of IDs, the research shows that while parents broadly value the benefits of inclusive pre-schools that involves promoting diversity and equal opportunity where every child feels accepted, respected, and supported; children with IDs are vulnerable to prejudice and a lack of readiness of teachers and peers to allow for the inclusivity of children with IDs undermines the social-emotional development of these children. Teachers’ verbal abuse and exclusion of children with IDs from class activities, and peer victimization, e.g., labeling them as different and excluding them from groups, resulted in social distance, power imbalance, emotional distress, and low self-esteem and confidence. Hence, the research suggests inclusive pre-schools to a) enhance peer sensitization by celebrating diversity; and initiating buddy programs, cooperative learning models, peer leadership training, and children’s awareness campaigns, and b) build teachers’ capacity to eliminate prejudice and foster human potential and well-being. The research seems beneficial for cultural and social psychology research, applying the concept to study other marginalized groups, and stakeholders willing to develop models centered on the socio-emotional well-being of children with IDs.
Open Access
Teachers’ perceptions regarding the two-year pre-primary curriculum for enhancing literacy skills in children aged 4-5 years in Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Musabbir, Md Abdul Mumin; Khanom, Ferdousi; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative research focused on the pre-primary teachers’ perspectives of Two-Year Pre-Primary Curriculum (2022), facilitating literacy development for 4–5 years children in Bangladesh. Considering that literacy is a foundation of lifelong learning, the study questioned what teachers make sense of curriculum, how they do it and how this way of unpacking develops in classrooms. Data was collected through one focus group discussion (FGD), six in-depth interviews (IDIs) and two times same classroom observations at the government primary schools purposively selected from Dhaka. Results showed that teachers recognized early literacy as crucial to children’s cognitive and linguistic, and social-emotional development. They liked that the curriculum is well-organized and age-appropriate, with a focus on songs, rhymes, storytelling and picture-based learning. However, other systemic barriers, like overcrowded classrooms, insufficient teaching-learning materials, insignificant parental engagement, and insufficient facilitation ability, hampered the effectiveness of the literacy component. The research points out that the curriculum’s aims reflect those of national and international policy on early childhood education (SDG 4.2), but it is ultimately predicated on teacher readiness, motivation and support to deliver on its promise. Supporting the professional development of teachers in phonological awareness, vocabulary development and emergent writing through sustained professional development is important to support quality provision. Supplying teaching and literacy resources as well as providing smaller class sizes and better classroom facilities would add value to the children’s learning. Additionally, promoting parent awareness and involvement through community-based literacy programs can establish a supportive home environment that promotes the maintenance of literacy development in children. The study also suggests that teacher feedback should be taken into account in future revisions of the pre-primary curriculum with a view to making it more context sensitive and ready to apply. High-quality large-scale studies of early literacy instruction and children’s outcomes should be conducted in the future to expand knowledge for policy development. Overall, this study adds to the early literacy debate in low-resource contexts in showing that well-designed curricula only work when implemented with systemic support, teacher professional development and linkages among teachers, parents and schools.
Open Access
Teachers’ perception of digital media’s role in the socio-emotional development of children aged from infancy to eight years
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Shuchi, Mahatajin Rumana; Zafar, Areefa; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
The rapid expansion of digital technologies has reshaped early childhood environments, presenting both educational opportunities and developmental concerns. While digital media can support interactive learning, growing evidence suggests that excessive or unsupervised exposure during the formative years (0–8) may hinder socio-emotional development. This period is crucial for acquiring emotional regulation, empathy, and social skills, which are best nurtured through responsive and reciprocal interactions with caregivers and peers. In Bangladesh, shifting family structures and increasing parental work demands have reduced children’s social engagement, heightening their reliance on digital devices. This qualitative study examines early childhood teachers’ perceptions of digital media’s impact on the socio-emotional development of children aged 0–8 years, informed by Vygotsky’s socio-cultural framework. It explores teachers’ observations of children’s behaviours, their mediation strategies, and their views on digital media’s developmental benefits and risks. By foregrounding teachers’ experiential insights, the study addresses a critical gap in the literature and informs policy, curriculum, and professional development in early childhood education in Bangladesh.
Open Access
Disciplining children: parental perceptions, practices, and the influences of early experiences
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Raisa, Rafsana Mustary; Ahmed, Nashida; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores how parents in urban Bangladesh perceive and practice child discipline, with special attention to how their own childhood experiences shape their current approaches. Drawing on semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions with mothers of young children, the research uncovers the beliefs, intentions, and everyday realities behind disciplinary decisions. Findings reveal that parents often describe discipline as more than correction—it is a way to teach morality, prepare children for life’s challenges, and pass down values. Their strategies range from strict, rule-focused methods to warm, relational approaches, shaped by religious beliefs, cultural traditions, and the echoes of how they were once disciplined themselves. While many express a desire to embrace more communicative, empathetic parenting, everyday pressures—economic stress, emotional fatigue, and inherited habits—often pull them toward inconsistent or reactive practices. In Bangladesh, much-needed national efforts rightly focus on rural poverty and marginalized communities. Yet, the country’s large and growing middle-income band, home to the majority of future leaders, often receives little support for mindful, non-violent parenting. This study highlights why their needs must not be overlooked. By addressing the parenting realities of this group, Bangladesh can nurture emotionally resilient, socially responsible citizens, strengthening not just families, but the nation’s future.
Open Access
Maternal perceptions of postpartum depression and its influence on children in early years
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Karim, Humaira Tasnim; Yesmin, Sakila; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study explores maternal perceptions of postpartum depression and its perceived impact on children’s development during their early years. Despite the growing global recognition of maternal mental health as a prominent determinant of child’s well-being, awareness surrounding postpartum depression and its developmental implications remain limited in many communities. Due to mothers largely constituting infant and children's social environment, it is necessary to investigate how mothers recognize the importance of identifying postpartum depression and its effects on their children. Using a purposive sampling strategy, data for this study were collected through using both Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and In-Depth Interview (IDI) methods. A notable gap regarding the clinical understanding of postpartum depression and its connection to key aspects of early childhood development (emotional attachment with mother, feeding practices, social interaction, cognitive development etc) was observed. Findings from the study highlight the need for instituting community-based awareness programs and integration of maternal mental health services within early childhood development frameworks.
Open Access
Parents’ perceptions of socio-emotional development of children aged 3 to 5 years in Bangladesh
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Sultan, Farsin Binte; Tasnim, Zarrin; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative study examines parents’ perceptions and practices related to the socio-emotional development of children aged 3 to 5 years in urban Bangladesh. Drawing on six in-depth interviews and two focus group discussions with mothers and fathers in Dhaka, the findings reveal that while parents acknowledge the importance of socio-emotional growth, their approaches are shaped by gender roles, cultural expectations, and environmental constraints. Mothers tend to nurture emotional development through storytelling, conversation, and moral guidance, whereas fathers emphasize structured discipline, calm modeling, or delayed intervention. Extended family members also contribute to children’s emotional learning, though intergenerational differences often lead to inconsistencies. Parents report facing challenges such as limited time, insufficient knowledge, and the disruptive effects of high screen exposure on emotional engagement. The study underscores the need for culturally responsive, father-inclusive, and family-oriented programs, the integration of socio-emotional learning into early childhood education, and practical guidance on managing digital exposure. Overall, the findings provide valuable insights for promoting emotional literacy, self-regulation, and social competence among young children in urban Bangladeshi contexts.
Open Access
Parents’ perception of air pollution and the impact of air pollution on the health and development of children aged 0-5 years
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Rashid, Tashnuva; Khan, Safayet; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
Globally, air pollution is one of most urgent contemporary challenges where children are especially vulnerable when breathes polluted air because of their physiological immaturity. Since parents are the key to their children's safety, raising parents’ awareness is essential to taking protective action for children against polluted air. This study explored the perception of parents of children aged 0-5 years on air pollution and the impact of air pollution on the health the development of children. To understand parents’ knowledge, awareness and concern, a quantitative cross-sectional survey was conducted with 118 parents in urban Dhaka of Bangladesh. A structured questionnaire was developed and through online modality data was collected using purposive sampling. Findings show that parents are well aware of air pollution and its immediate health risks such as, respiratory problems and adverse pregnancy outcomes. However, parents were less familiar with the long-term health and developmental impacts of air pollution like, heart diseases, diabetes, cognitive impairment, mental health challenges in adulthood. Despite this, an overwhelming parents expressed serious concern and strong willingness to engage in public awareness initiative. They also seemed very worried about the current poor air quality of their area and showed interest in raising more public awareness on this critical issue.
Open Access
Parental perception of self-care and its connection to childcare (age range 0-5 years old)
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Jafrin, Mehriba; Islam, Syeda Fareha Shaheeda; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
This qualitative research intends to explore the perceptions of urban parents regarding self-care, their self-care practices, and the connection between parental self-care and childcare. It was found through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions that urban Bangladeshi parents are well aware of the concept, but they rarely have the time and opportunity to practice it to a satisfactory extent. Parents taking good care of themselves affects their own lives positively and trickles down to their children’s lives as well. Parents who take care of themselves can communicate better with their children and as a result, the children behave better. That being said, there are significant barriers to parents being able to practice self-care. The study recommends better support from workplaces and changes on the policy level to make way for that, along with awareness campaigns.
Open Access
Father's perception on their involvement for 0-3 years old children’s cognitive development in urban area
(BRAC University, 2025-09) Mahbub, Fatema; Tasnim, Zarrin; BRAC Institute of Educational Development
The early cognitive development of children is significantly influenced by parental involvement, particularly that of fathers. Nevertheless, the importance of fathers' involvement in the early years (0–3) is frequently overlooked in both research and practice, particularly in urban settings of developing countries. In Dhaka, Bangladesh, this investigation investigates the perspectives of fathers regarding their involvement in their children's cognitive development. Data were collected through semi-structured in-depth interviews (IDI) and focus group discussions (FGD) with a diverse group of urban fathers residing in varying socio-economic neighborhoods of the city, utilizing a qualitative research design. Research indicates that although the majority of fathers acknowledge the significance of their involvement in early stimulation activities, including storytelling, problem-solving, and playing, they frequently encounter difficulties in reconciling their professional obligations with their children's quality time. The extent of their involvement is also influenced by cultural expectations and traditional gender roles. However, there is a progressive transition in attitudes as a result of the growing recognition of the longterm advantages of father-child interaction. The study underscores the necessity of policy support, parental education, and increased advocacy to promote active fatherhood in early childhood development. These insights have the potential to enhance the development outcomes of children in urban Bangladesh by informing family-centered interventions.

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